ecology

Natality

Natality is the expansion of new individual to a populace.

Physiological (most extreme) natality: the greatest number of births conveyed amid the life time of a person.

Acknowledged natality: the genuine number of fruitful births that happens amid the life time of a person.

Creature Natality:

Rough natality, where new people added are identified with the current populace all in all.

Particular natality, where a particular rule, for example, age gathering or sex or both is thought about to figure the diverse qualities to clarify the populace progression, Fecundity life tables are utilized.

Valuable definitions

(mx) = the mean number of females conceived in every age bunch by another female.

Net conceptive rate (Ro) = ∑ lx * mx; number of females included through a lifetime by an infant female.

Discrete populace: era time = unit time.

One and only associate in the year, no covering between populace amid one year time frame.

Limitless rate of expansion (λ)

Ro = λ

Populace size at certain year (Nt )

Nt = λ No

Nt+1 = λ Nt

Consistent populace: era time ¹ unit time

There is more than one associate around the same time, covering between eras.

Ro ≠ λ

Inborn rate of expansion (r) ; measures the inner capacity of various eras to add to the future populace.

r = ln λ

λ = er

Era time Tc = ∑ x lx mx/Ro

r = ln Ro/Tc

Nt = λ No

Populace control

Populaces may become uncertainly if there is sufficient assets and no opposition which is for the most part speculative and could be measured as

Change in populace size with time (dN/dt) = r N

This will deliver a boundless development (exponential (J-Shaped) development bend). In any case, every environment have a most extreme limit for the quantity of individual it can bolster (conveying limit). So the rate of expansion of populace will be reliant on this conveying limit (K).

Change in populace size with the reality of the situation will become obvious eventually measured as

dN/dt = r N (K-N/K).

to deliver a sigmoidal or logistic development bend.

The future populace size could be computed utilizing λ or r as takes after:

Nt = λ No ..................... Nt = er No

Nt+1 = λt Nt .................. Nt+1 = er t Nt

As a populace methodologies the conveying limit, the rate of expansion will be negligible until it achieves zero.

On the off chance that the inborn rate of expansion is sufficiently little (low rate of expansion); populace is going to approach conveying limit easily. While, populaces will experience certain wavering examples around the conveying limit (K) as the rate of expansion is getting bigger, until it achieves a condition of Chaos.

Populace can control themselves inside to lessen rivalry through what is called thickness subordinate direction. The populace will settle around the conveying limit as indicated by variables identified with thickness.

There are a few elements influence populace measure yet not identified with thickness, for example, seismic tremors, volcanoes, surges… and so forth these administrative components are depicts as being thickness free control.

Age or stage structure

Concentrating on populaces by gathering them into various stage or age bunches which bargain certain proportion of the entire (100%) populace to create Population Pyramids.

Sex Ratio

The proportion of guys and females in a populace structure and typically begins as 1:1, in any case, the earth may transform it as people develop.

Life history methodologies

Creatures through their developmental time select certain life examples to adjust to their surroundings with a specific end goal to be better fit. These accumulation of characteristics are called life history example or procedure.

¯ r-chose methodology (Ephemerals) or (r): favors propagation overall.

§ Live in cruel environment, (open territory).

§ No restriction, no opposition, size doesn't make a difference.

§ Individuals are vast in no., however little in size.

§ Population does not reach conveying limit (K).

§ Mortality is thickness autonomous, modified life occasions and short life cycle.

§ Allocate the greater part of their assets for generation.

§ Have high natural rate of expansion, high development rate.

§ High no. of posterity, little size, negligible parental consideration.

¯ k-chose procedure (peak) or (k):favor the utilization of environment.

§ Live in a steady, unsurprising environment.

§ High level of rivalry, high assorted qualities.

§ Individual substantial in size, produce few posterity, parental consideration.

§ Mortality is thickness dependant.

§ Allocate the greater part of their assets for development and survival.

§ Low inborn rate of expansion and moderately low development rate.

§ Delay propagation until they are better contenders, then repeat ordinarily.

§ Maintain populace size close to the conveying limit (K).

Specialty

Specialty: is a multi dimensional hyper volume of asset necessity for life form.

Basic specialty: characterize the corner for a living being founded on the essential needs of that living being under no opposition.

No two individual can involve the same specialty in the meantime,

However, in nature, there is covering between specialties because of rivalry which will bring about the diminishment of the central corner to shape the Realized specialty.

¯ Competitive avoidance: as a consequence of rivalry one of

the living beings will be rejected, less basic.

¯ Competitive separation, more basic and will

result in:

· Niche apportioning: assets will be segment

between the two living beings to maintain a strategic distance from rivalry.

· Niche pressure: corner get to be smaller,

so inside the same space more corners can happen.

Group Ecology

Manages multi-species living in the same region and their collaboration with each other.

Properties and group perspectives incorporate (Diversity, Richness, Vertical and Horizontal Stratification, Evenness, ...and so on.).

Natural Succession: a unidirectional, continuous change in vegetation, soil and creature groups with biological time.

Essential and auxiliary progression is analogical to the life form advancement and the recuperating from wounds.

Sere or the diverse stages (seral stage) of progression will begin at the pioneer stage where just few living being (pioneers) can live and duplicate. Inevitably prompt the last stable stage where harmony happens (Climax stage).

ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

Presentation

Nature is the science that arrangements with the connections of life forms with their encompassing.

The word nature originates from the Latin words

● Oikos = house-hold

● Logos = to think about

The encompassing is every one of the components that will influence the life form, they are of two sorts:

● Living segments = Biotic components

● Non living segments = Abiotic variables

Biology is a multidisciplinary science that fuse numerous different orders.

Biologists are ordered in light of their exploration interest.

We will investigate the study of environment at three distinct levels of natural pecking order: Ecosystem, Population and Community levels.

Biological system Ecology

Biological systems are characterized as an automatic collaborating living beings of various species and their surroundings (A. Tansley, 1935).

Every biological system has structure and capacity:

Structure: incorporate the living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) elements.

Capacities: incorporates the stream of vitality and cycling of supplements.

Biological community Structure

Biotic elements

Incorporate every living segment of the environment:

1-Producers = Autotrophs

· photoautotrophs

· chemoautotrophs

2-Consumers = Heterotrophs

· Herbivores: essential shoppers.

· Carnivores: auxiliary purchasers and tertiary buyers.

· Omnivores: sustains on plants and creatures.

3-Decomposers: sustains on natural matter

Abiotic elements

Incorporate every nonliving segment (physical and synthetic) of the biological system:

The major rising property of biological communities is Stability.

Regular biological systems are adjusted inside by two noteworthy instruments: Resistance and Resilience Disturbance: any element that contrarily influence the common environment.

The wellness of a creature is measured by its capacity to survive the unsettling influence and deliver ripe off-springs after the aggravation

Decay is the transformation of natural matter into less complex inorganic mixes. It is a mind boggling process beginning from the fracture of plant and creature deposits until at long last the generation of straightforward inorganic mixes. Its rate is influenced by natural variables, for example, temperature and dampness notwithstanding the kind of natural material.

Abiotic environment and its connection to living beings

1. Law of least by Leibig.

2.Law of resilience by Shelford.

Biological community Functions

Stream of vitality

Sunlight based vitality will be caught by makers, then will move through the diverse levels (trophic levels) of a biological community and is represented by the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

Biological pyramids:

Clarifies the stream of vitality in an environment and could be perspectives as a chain or a web.

Makers are the biggest part of the pyramid with respect to vitality, number or biomass.

Vitality, Number or Biomass will be decreased as we go up in the pyramid (10% Law).

Variables deciding number of trophic levels are; multifaceted nature of the territory and the extent of life forms.

Examples of natural pecking orders and nourishment networks

· Detrital natural pecking orders: bargains essentially with decomposers.

· Grazing natural pecking orders: bargains essentially with herbivores and their relations with makers and shoppers.

· Supplementary natural ways of life: manages all relations in an environment that does not have a place any of the above examples

Significance of contemplating natural ways of life

· Biological control.

· Controlling the exchange of the living being between biological systems.

· Prevent elimination of species.

· Following the gathering of noxious materials to anticipate organic amplification.

Efficiency

The rate of putting away natural material in living tissue (per unit zone per time).

Net essential efficiency (NPP): the rate at which vitality is put away in the collection of makers by photosynthetic action.

Gross essential profitability (GPP): the aggregate generation of natural matter (photosynthate) including the vitality utilized for cell breath (R).

GPP = NPP + R

Standing Crop Biomass: the aggregate biomass delivered per region (one time measure = (gm/zone))

Auxiliary efficiency: the rate at which vitality is put away in the collection of buyers.

GSP = NSP + R + Waste items

Elements influencing efficiency:

· In sea-going environment

i. Light

ii. Supplement

· In physical environment

i. Light

ii. Temperature

iii. Dampness

Ecology

Biology

This is the investigation of between relations (collaborations) between an organ ism or a gathering 0of creatures and their surroundings.

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY.

1. Living space: is a spot where a creature lives e.g. land living space is known as physical (for the most part backwoods, deserts and savannahs), water territory is amphibian (incorporates crisp water bodies and marine water bodies)

2. Biosphere: is the part of the earth and environment where life can exist. This reaches from profound water bodies, land and a couple meters in the environment.

3. Species: this is a gathering of creatures which can interbreed to offer ascent to a suitable or ripe posterity.

4. Populace: a gathering of creatures of the same species possessing the same region at a given time e.g. a populace of elephants in Queen Elizabeth national park, populace of hippos in kasinga channel, populace of parrot fowls in Gayaza High School and so on.

5. Group. This is a gathering of populaces of various life forms involving the same range or a gathering of various types of living beings in the same zone. E.g. a group of elands, elephants, lions, in Queen Elizabeth National park

6. Biological specialty: This is a term utilized as a part of connection to a specific life form. It alludes to the part/calling of a creature in a given living space eg the specialty of a spirogyra in a lake is to photosynthesis or to deliver sustenance.

7. Biome: These are huge biological divisions discovered everywhere throughout the world. They have trademark plant and creature groups, e.g. central downpour timberlands biome, Amazon, savannah prairies and forests, mild woodlands and so on.

8. Environment: encompassing of a living being e.g. in Gayaza environment we have creatures like fowls, panthers, foxes, rats and so on.

9. A biological system. This is any unit of environment comprising of both living and non living segments existing together as an amicability e.g. a lake where living parts like fish, creepy crawly hatchlings, creatures of land and water, and plants like spirogyra connect with the non living segments, for example, water, rocks, sand and so on.

A biological system comprises of two parts/situations;

a) The biotic environment. (living part)

Comprise of the creature and plant groups. In this way biotic is thought to be the living life forms, whether smaller scale or large scale in size. These structure an essential domain of a life form and are in a consistent connection with each other. The plant group is known as verdure and the creature group is known as fauna.

b) The abiotic environment.

These are the non living parts of an eco framework.

They incorporate;

i. Climatic components of the air, for example, precipitation, light, temperature, dampness, air streams (wind), environmental weight, overcast spread and so forth.

ii. Water collections of all sizes and qualities.

Some are new water bodies; others are marine (high salt fixation).

iii. Edaphic (soil) elements; incorporate soil structure, profile, surface, pH, temperature and so forth.

iv. Lithosphere (rock sorts) elements or area shapes e.g. transformative rocks, sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks.

Connections WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM

Nourishment relations in a biological community

Nourishment is a wellspring of vitality i.e. vitality in synthetic structure. Nourishment in a biological system exists as natural matter (biomass).

Biomass is the measure of the measure of living or natural material in a living being. It considers the dry weight (short water and different liquids in the body).

Sustenance relations is a typical type of connection which comprises of eating (devouring) and being eaten (being expended).

Inside the connection there are diverse methods of nourishing.

The methods of nourishing rely on upon;

The way of sustenance and the nourishing level. Green plants (Autotrophs) make their own nourishment utilizing daylight vitality. They join water and carbon dioxide into natural material (starch). This procedure is known as photosynthesis.

A portion of the sustenance vitality is utilized by the plant for its own metabolic exercises e.g. breath. A portion of the vitality is lost amid breath in type of warmth. The lost warmth vitality turns out to be a piece of the abiotic environment once it enters the climate.

The parity of vitality in the plant is in this manner accessible to the following trophic level made up of the herbivores (essential customers); omnivores-lower carnivores (auxiliary buyers) – top carnivores (tertiary shoppers) – scroungers and decomposers.

Scroungers feast upon cadavers of the creature executed by the carnivores. Essential purchasers, carnivores, foragers and decomposers are heterotrphs on the grounds that they can't fabricate their own particular sustenance.

Trophic levels allude to vitality levels (for the most part as far as sustenance). Inside an eco framework, green plants are in this manner alluded to as makers since vitality enters the framework through these plants from the sun.

NB, since the customer does not eat all parts of the plant, it implies that the accessible vitality in plants is not all used.

Evolved ways of life

An evolved way of life is a direct bolstering relationship amongst makers and buyers in a biological system. It speaks to the exchange of nourishment vitality from green plants through rehashed phases of eating and being eaten.

There are two sorts of natural pecking orders

1. Brushing natural way of life. Begins with green plants

2. Rubbish natural way of life. Begins with dead natural material (flotsam and jetsam or garbage)

In development of natural pecking order, a bolt is utilized to connect the distinctive levels of creatures and the course in which the bolt point is from the life form that is being devoured to the following buyer.

Cases

1. Water weeds tilapia nile dry crocodiles microscopic organisms.

2. Plant garbage microscopic organisms protozoa mosquito hatchling

Starting with one level then onto the next nourishment vitality is being exchanged.

These distinctive levels are alluded to as vitality levels/trophic levels. At different customer levels, a portion of the nourishment vitality is used for breath, while a portion of the vitality is lost in type of warmth through different procedures, for example,

1. pee

2. sweat

3. Gasping.

4. Exhalation.

Accordingly the measure of vitality picked up by the higher trophic levels continues diminishing such that at the last level (decomposers) the measure of vitality is irrelevant.

Nourishment web

In a characteristic group, a few natural ways of life are interlinked to frame a sustenance web. A few herbivores may feast upon one plant. Essentially a given herbivore might be eaten by various carnivores

Cases

Pyramid of numbers

At the point when the quantities of living beings at each trophic level are considered and the outcomes spoke to in a realistic structure, a pyramid shape is gotten. This is on account of one herbivore bolsters on numerous green plants. One flesh eater additionally nourishes on numerous herbivores

Carnivores (tertiary shoppers)

Carnivores (auxiliary buyers)

Herbivores (essential shoppers)

Green plants (makers)

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

{HAVE TO SEE|WOULD NEED TO KNOW}:
- The difference between {a significant|an elementary} niche and {a recognized|a noticed|an understood} niche
- The role of competitive exclusion in interspecific competition.
- The symbiotic {associations|human relationships|interactions} of parasitism, mutualism, and commensalisms with examples.
- The impact of keystone {varieties|types|kinds} on community structure.
- The difference between primary and secondary succession.

I. {SUMMARY OF|INTRODUCTION TO|REVIEW OF} THE CHAPTER:
- Community - an assemblage of {foule|masse|multitude} of various species living close enough for potential interaction.
- Ecologists define the boundaries of a particular community {to match|to slip|to adjust to} their research question.

II. COMMUNITY {RELATIONSHIPS|CONNECTIONS|COMMUNICATIONS}:
- The {final amount|aggregate, final amount} of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its environment {is known as|is named|is referred to as} the species' ecological {market|specialized niche|specific niche market}. As a result of competition, a species' {important|primary|critical} niche, which is the niche potentially occupied by that species, may be different from its {recognized|noticed|understood} niche that is the niche the species actually occupies.
- Ecologists {make reference to|label|consider} these relationships as interspecific {relationships|connections|communications}. There are several types {of those|of such|of the} interactions:
o Interspecific competition - occurs when {varieties|types|kinds} compete for a particular resource that {is within|is at|is} brief supply (ex. Garden {vegetation|plant life|crops} and weeds for {ground|dirt|garden soil} and water). The results of this competition are detrimental for both {varieties|types|kinds} (-/-). Strong competition {can result in|can cause} the local elimination of one of the two competing species - competitive exclusion principle. Even {minor|small|moderate} advantage in using resources more {successfully|proficiently} can {bring about|cause} a reproductive benefits for one species and drive the other to {annihilation|termination|defunctness}. At times two {varieties|types|kinds} that compete for resources will evolve differently from {the other person} so they do not compete for the similar resources any more and they can coexist in the same community - resource partitioning.
o Feeding relationships (Predation and herbivory) - +/- interaction between species in which one species, the predator, {eliminates|gets rid of} and eats the other, the prey. Both {potential predators|possible predators} and prey developed important adaptations through natural selection for survival (Know examples). Herbivores and plants {also provide|likewise have|have} adaptations to avoid being eaten or benefit from it and also to be more successful {grow|herb|flower} eaters. (Also need to know examples) Interesting morphological and physiological adaptations also developed to be more successful in the nourishing relationships:
? Cryptic coloration (camouflage) - Ex. Canyon {woods|shrub|forest} frog
? Mechanical and {chemical substance|substance} defenses - Ex. Skunks, porcupines
? Aposematic coloration (warning coloration) - Ex. {Toxin|Killer} arrow frog
? Batesian mimicry - harmless (palatable) {varieties|types|kinds} mimics a harmful one - Ex. Hawkmoth chrysalis mimics green parrot {fish|leather}
? Mullerian mimicry - 2 or more unpalatable (poisonous) species resemble {the other person} - Ex. Various wasp {varieties|types|kinds} - This is a good example of concourant evolution
o Symbiotic relationships:
? Parasitism - (+/-). Parasite benefits, host is being {damaged|injured|hurt}. {Could be|May be} endoparasites (organisms that live {inside an|within the|during an} other organism) or exoparasites (organisms that live on the {outside|external|outdoor} surface of the host). Parasitoidism - organisms {place|lay down|put} eggs within or {on the|over a} living host. You must know examples. Parasites can seriously limit growth in the host population.
? Contagious diseases (+/-). Pathogens or disease {creating|triggering} agents are typically small microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, prions, protists, fungi). You must know one example {of every|of each and every}. Pathogens can also seriously limit {populace|human population|inhabitants} growth in the {contaminated|afflicted|attacked} populations.
? Mutualism (+/+) - Ex. Ants and {robinier|cassier} trees, N-fixing Rhisobium bacterias and legumes.
? Commensalism (+/0) - Any close {romantic relationship|marriage|romance} would influence both {microorganisms|creatures} in most cases, {therefore it is|so it will be|it is therefore} hard to find {good examples|illustrations|cases} of this relationship. {Ex lover|Former mate|Ex girlfriend or boyfriend}. Egrets and water {zoysia grass|zoysia}, whales and barnacles.

- Coevolution - reciprocal evolutionary {modifications|different types|changes} of two interacting {varieties|types|kinds}. This {must be|should be} {a hereditary|an innate|an anatomical} change in one of the parties to follow another change in the other organism.

III. COMMUNITY STRUCTURE:
- Two fundamental features of community structure:
o Species diversity - variety of different {sorts|varieties} of {microorganisms|creatures} that make up the community. It is {made up|constructed|consisting} of species richness - total number {of various|of numerous} {varieties|types|kinds} and relative abundance - the proportion {of every|of each and every} {varieties|types|kinds} to the total amount of people. Various {sample|testing|trying} techniques {are being used} to determine species diversity.
o Trophic structure or feeding relationships. {Meals|Foodstuff} chains describe the copy of materials and energy from one organism to another. The typical order:
? Primary producers (mostly photosynthetic plants or algae)
? {Main|Major|Principal} consumers (mostly herbivores)
? {Supplementary|Extra|Second} consumers (carnivores)
? Tertiary consumers (carnivores)
? Quaternary consumers (carnivores)
? At any level decomposers

POPULATION ECOLOGY

{HAVE TO SEE|WOULD NEED TO KNOW}:
- How density, demographics and dispersion can describe a population.
- The {distinctions|dissimilarities} between exponential and logistic types of population growth.
- How density-dependent and density-independent factors can control population {development|progress|expansion}.

NOTES:
I. OVERVIEW:
This kind of chapter is very {subjective|summary|hypothetical}. {To actually|To truly|To essentially} understand and practice population ecology requires a lot of crunching {figures|amounts|quantities}, field work, calculations and reading graphs. We are just learning {the fundamental|the essential|the standard} key {conditions} and some habits and generalizations. Always know multiple examples where it applies.

- Population - individuals of a species within a given area. {They will are|That they are} distributed in space, vary in age and size ->  {populace|human population|inhabitants} structure.

II. POPULATION {DENSENESS|THICKNESS|OCCURRENCE} AND DEMOGRAPHICS
- Members of the same population count {on a single|about the same} resources, are {affected|inspired|motivated} by the same environmental factors, interact and {replicate|recreate|duplicate} {with one another|together}.
- Population density - {the amount of|the quantity of} individuals per {device|product} area or volume (can be determined directly by counting or by sampling)
- Population dispersion - the pattern of spacing among individuals of the {foule|masse|multitude}.
a. Patterns of {circulation|syndication|division} {of numerous|of varied} populations within a geographic range:
- Clumped - the individuals aggregated in patches (ex. Plants, {fungus|disease|infection}, pack of wolves) because of patchy environmental conditions or food sources, {predacious|meat eating} animals may be more successful of hunting in packs or herbivorous {pets|pets or animals|family pets} may be more successful of surviving attacks of carnivores in herds, matching behaviors also may call for clumped dispersion.
- Uniform - the individuals in the population are {equally|consistently|uniformly} spaced (ex. Plants release chemicals that inhibit the germination and regarding other organisms, territoriality among {pets|pets or animals|family pets}, artificially planted trees)
- Random - occurs in the absence of strong {sights|destinations|interesting attractions} or repulsions among individuals of the population. The position {of every|of each and every} individual is fairly independent one the other side of the coin individuals. (ex. {Blowing wind|Wind flow|Breeze} blown seed disposal for trees or other plants)
- Demography - the study of the {essential} statistics of populations {and exactly how|and just how} they change over time - is also an useful way of describing populations.
o Life tables - age-specific summaries of the survival {design|routine|style} of a population. {These types of|These kinds of} tables follow the {destiny|fortune} {of the|of any|of your} group of individuals of the same {age group|era|time} (cohort) from birth until death. These are hard {to create|to set up} for wild {pets|pets or animals|family pets}.

o Survivorship Curves - A graph that plots the proportion or number of individuals in a cohort still alive at each age. Although survivorship {figure are|shape are} diverse, they usually follow one of 3 patterns:
? Type I - flat {in the beginning|at the beginning}, reflecting low death rates during the early and middle years, than it drops considerably as death rates increase in old age (large mammals, humans).
? Type 3 - drops sharply at the start because of high death rates for the young, but than flattens out as {loss of life|fatality} rates decline for those few individuals {which may have|that contain} {made it|made it through} to some age. Commonly, these organisms have large number of offspring {and incredibly|and extremely|and intensely} little care (oysters, many fish species)
? Type 2 - Intermediate, with {a regular|a frequent} death rate over the organism's life span (most rodents, some lizards, {twelve-monthly|gross annual} plants)

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

{Records|Paperwork|Remarks}:

I. Overview:
- Animal {habit|tendencies|patterns} - an action {transported|taken} out by muscles or glands under control of the nervous system {in answer|reacting} to a stimulus. {These types of|These kinds of} behaviors are determined by the physiological systems and {skills|talents} of the {patient|affected person|affected individual}.
- Animal behavior is essential part of acquiring nutrition, finding a partner, keeping up homeostasis, raising young, etc.
- Because behavior is essential for reproduction, it also influences and {affected|inspired|motivated} by natural selection. {Pet|Canine|Pet animal} behavior is restricted to the given set of genes that animals have but various mutations and within behavior can make the population more or less fit to {endure|make it through} in a given environment.

II. Basics of {Pet|Canine|Pet animal} Behavior (Handout p. 208-209 and 216-217) -- {Pet|Canine|Pet animal} behaviors can be {credited|ascribed|linked} to two components:
- Innate behavior -- behavior {decided|identified|established} by the "hard-wiring" of the nervous system. {It really is|It truly is|It can be} genetically predetermined, usually {rigid|unbending|adamant}, a given stimulus {causing|activating|initiating} {the|specific} response. These {actions|behaviours|manners} frequently follow {a traditional|a time-honored|a common}, rigid pathway called a fixed-action pattern (FAP) where a releaser (some {kind of|form of|sort of} stimulus) triggers an {procedure} of the innate {liberating|launching|publishing} mechanism in the {anxious|stressed|worried} system. This trigger {leads to|brings about|ends in} the same set of actions {whenever|each and every time} the response is initiated. (Ex. Matching dances of birds {brought on|induced|activated} by the {occurrence} of a female; the {as fast as possible|as soon as possible} rolling behavior of many waterfowl species; kelp gull chicks peck {on the|over a} red spot on mother's beak to initiate regurgitation of food etc. )
o Examples of innate behaviors:
? Reflexes - knee-jerk reflex, {drawback|disengagement|revulsion} reflex
? Taxis - {motion|movements|activity} in response to the direction of the {stimulation|incitement|government} toward (positive) or away (negative) from the {stimulation|incitement|government}
? Kinesis - Random {motion|movements|activity} of the animal in no particular direction (Ex. Pill bugs move more when the humidity is low)
? Instincts (stereotyped behavior) - more complex {actions|behaviours|manners} than reflexes that {do it again|duplicate|do} {similar to the way|not much different from the way} {whenever|each and every time} (Ex. {Trembling|Banging|Moving} water from wet {hair|coat|pelt}, newly hatched sea frogs move toward the ocean)
- Learned behaviors - {Outcomes|Effects|Benefits} from {activities|experience} of the animal. Learned behaviors can modify innate behaviors. Learning behavior also {may well not|might not exactly} {the actual|stick to the} exact same pattern every time.
o Examples of discovered behaviors:
? Classical conditioning - animals associate one {stimulation|incitement|government} with another (Ex. dog salivate when gets food, can be taught to salivate when hears a bell - Pavlov)
? Naturalization - respond to the stimulus decreases {launched|if it is|in the next} repeated with no apparent {impact|result} (Ex. Drug habituation in humans; harbor seals get accustomed to hearing local killer whale calls and do not respond to it)
? Imprinting behavior - {throughout a|within a} critical period, an animal can adopt a behavior by latching on to the stimulus (Ex. Mallard chicks follow the first organism who they see right after hatching - Lorenz)
? Operant {fitness|health and fitness|health} - or trial and error learning - {pet is|creature is|dog is} rewarded or {penalized|reprimanded} after chance behavior.

3. Timing of Animal {Habit|Tendencies|Patterns} (Review pp. 201-205)
- Environmental cues, such as day length, height of tides, temperature changes, moon {stages are being used|levels are being used} by plants and animals to establish or maintain patterns of activities. Many life activities run in cycles, such as mating, birth, storage of food, migration, building body fat, sleeping patterns, this.
- Biological rhythms can be direct response to environmental stimuli (exogenous) or can happen without environmental {tips|signs} (endogenous). These endogenous components of biological rhythms are often called biological lighting. Endogenous rhythms continue even in the {lack of|a shortage of} environmental cues.
- To {stay in|continue in} synchrony with the environment, {natural|neurological|organic} clocks need to {reset to zero|recast} at regular time {time periods|periods|times} by external timekeepers. {They are|These are generally} environmental cues that {reset to zero|recast} the clock.
- In humans the interior clock is made up of a set of cells in the midline of the brain (suprachiasmatic nucleus - SCN). Light from the eyes stimulate the {lack of|nerve system} pathways that {hook up} with this biological clock {assisting|supporting|aiding} to reset it. The SCN is {linked} to the pineal gland {within our|inside our} brain. This gland produces melanine - {a body hormone|a junk} that induces sleep, usually produced in the {deep|darkness|sunset}. Melanine helps to realign our biological clocks.

Museums

What is Museum ? The word museum comes from the Greek word mouseion. In ancient Greece the mousein was the temple of the Muses, the goddesses of arts and sciences Museum is an institution  where artistic and education materials are exhibited to the public, The materials available for observation and study are called a collection. A collection may include scientific specimens, works of art and exhibits and information on history or tech nology.

     Kinds of Museums. There are five main kinds of museums.

1.       Art Museums. Art museums preserve and exhibit paintings, sculpture and other works of art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in Newyork  city and the National Gallery in London are Art Museums. The Famous Louvre Museum displays Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and the Greck stature Venus de Milo.

2.       History Museums. History museums illustrate  the life and events of the past. Museums commemorating. Mahtama Gandhi are in New Delhi, Bombay and Ahmadabad.

3.       Applied Science Museums. These are also called science and technology museums. They help people understand the world of machines. They demonstrate scientific principles and show their application in tools, machinery and industrial processes. The museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, is good example of this kind of museum.

4.       Natural Science Museums. They exhibit displays of animals, fossils, plats, rocks. And other objects and organisms founds in nature. The Natural History Museum in London has good specimens of animals and plats.

5.       General Museums. They exhibit materials from several fields of study. The British museum in London contains displays of art , archaeology and ancient documents and manuscripts.

Other Museums. Other kinds of museums exhibit  materials only on one subject . The Rail Museum Delhi exhibits displays  on Indian Railways.

Functions of museums. Museums perform the followings functions :

1.       Acquisition Material. Every new object that a museum adds to its collection is called an acquisition. Museums acquire abject in several ways, of which field collection is one of the most useful. The scientists and technicians go outside to gather specimens and data on a particular subject which are within the scope of the museum.

2.       Recording of materials. Each acquisition is listed carefully by specialist staff. AAs soon as objects are received, the data, the source , the method of acquisition and other available information are entered  in the record register.

3.       Preservation of Materials. The primary purpose  of museums is to preserve selected object Curators know that no specimens will last forever. What museums undertake to do is to prolog the life time of the objects. Preservation in a museums consist of two stapes. Specimens must be put into a condition that checks detritions. The specimens must protected.

4.        Research. One important use of museum is to extract as much knowledge as possible from the specimens. Many museums publish scholarly journals, series of papers and books to make available the results of research on their collection.

5.       Exhibition of Materials. Various members of the museum staff prepare the acquisitions for exhibition. The specimens selected for exhibition are put on view in numerous ways. The choice of approach and technique depends largely on the purpose of exhibit.

6.       Education. A number of universities conduct some courses in certain subjects at museums in order to take advantage of the collection. Thus museums help in spreading education.

The Role of Zoological Parks in Wildlife Conservation

The Role of Zoological Parks in Wildlife Conservation

        Fauna and flora of this were abundant until about a century ago and the man felt little necessity to artificial collection of wild animals and plants. There was harmonious equilibrium between natural vegetation and wildlife. Keeping of some animals in captivity dates back to Mughal era or even before when private individuals and sportsmen maintained some species like Cheetah and some birds of prey for their assistance in hunting or as a symbol of social status. The regular zoo movement in India, began in the year 1855 when the first zoo was set up in Chennai.

      In the zoological parks animals enjoy protection, fine sun-shine, fresh air and above all ample open space to play about. They have now become repertories of threatened wildlife and a store house of the knowledge on animals behaviour, their breeding habits, etc.

    Up to the middle of 20^th century, zoo animals were exhibited in cages. Today the tendency is to provide the animals in captivity with something akin to their natural habitat. Gone are the days when wild animals lived in cages like convicts in prison. Now the wild animals in zoo rather resemble estate owners. Far from desiring to escape and regain freedom, they tend to defend the space they inhabit and to keep it safe from intrusion. Zoological park is the Place where they are assured of food, medical care and treatment and where they also feel safe from their natural enemies.

        In early stages, the zoological parks, were considered as places of relaxation and enjoyment for public. Of late, however, there has been a change in the objective and purposefulness of these parks. The establishment of zoological parks helps in providing knowledge about different native and exotic wild mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and flora to the public in general and school children in particular. Since the key to wildlife conservation lies in the education of masses and involvement of voluntary organizations, zoological parks are very useful in spreading knowledge on the wildlife wealth of the country. These are also important centers   for organizing seminars, training and research on the management of wildlife species and for study of their social behaviour, breeding and ecological aspects.

           Zoological  parks all over the world have been involved in the rescue of many species threatened with extinction. Some individuals of certain species, which have vanished from their natural homes are still surviving in the parks. Our country has made good progress in the rehabilitation of some endangered species. The crocodile Rehabilitation Project being run by the FAO on the request of Government of India has done commendable work to rehabilitate crocodiles. Similarly the Himalayan Musk deer at Kufri and extraction of musk has also been achieved. For Brow-Antlered  Deer efforts are being to establish a second sanctuary for releasing deer bred in captivity into the wild. Attempts have also been made for preserving other species like Blackbuk, Sambar and Spotted Deer. Similar projects for pheasants and partridges are under way. Conservation efforts have been made over the world by breeding mammals and birds in parks and releasing them in free state as in case of the Great Indian Bustard, Houbara, Bustard, Hawaiian Goose, European Bison, etc. Thus zoological parks have eventually succeeded in savings quite a few species and rehabilitating a few in the wild which otherwise would have been extinct by now. The zoological parks therefore, are playing an important role in wildlife conservation.  

Maintenance of Zoological Park

Maintenance of Zoological Park

Once the park is established its bringing up and maintenance is as difficult as its setting up. The trouble start when the animals start arriving. Proper arrangements must be made in advance to proper the animals properly in their enclosures. Satisfactory arrangement for the procurement of feed and fodder for the animals must also be made in advance.

Veterinary and Health Care. Adequate up and maintenance is as difficult as its setting regular check up pathological investigations are absolutely necessary to be made for the health, care and upkeep of the animals. Animals should be regularly vaccinated. For proper veterinary care, case history files and history sheets of all animals should be maintained. The veterinary doctor should be stationed at site along with necessary staff.

      Successful growth of a zoological park can be estimated from the lower rate of mortality of animals every year, good breeding results and good health of the animals. It is essential to ensure proper sanitation  and upkeep of animals houses, cages, toilets and other public placed

Monotony Another problem is monotony of the animals. Animals specially those caught from the wild tend to become bored. Monotony arises when companion of an animals dies or due to the lack of variety in the enclosure, improper male females ratio,  or improper food. All these can be rectified by thoughtful panning

Landscaping Works. The lawns, parks and grassy patches must be trimmed and mowed regularly. Trees, shrubs etc. must be tended. The annual and seasonal flowers should be grown in abundance to splash colour in the park and give feeling of gaiety and festivity,

Hoardings and Sign Park on Roads. To give proper direction and indication to the visitors and tourists, and tourists, sing posts of the zoological park should be put up on important points and road junctions. Big hoardings not only attract visitors but also provide proper directions to the park. They also give some indications of the kind of animals in the park.

Literature on Park Animals. For the purpose of education, posters, brochures on park charts , magazines and articles on wildlife and plants should be brought out for free distribution to the public for information and dissemination of knowledge on wildlife of the park,

Important Zoological Parks of India

1.       Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatanam, Andhra Pradesh.

2.       Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

3.       Sri Venkateswara Zoological Park, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh.

4.       National Zoological Park, Mathura Road, Delhi.

5.       Kamala Nehru Zoological Garden, Kankaria, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.

6.       Sri Chamarajendra Zoological Garden, Mysore, Karnataka.

7.       NandanKanan Zoological Park, Bhubaneshwae, Orissa.

8.       Mahendra Chaudhury Zoological Park, Chhatbir, Punjab.

9.       Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Vandalur, Outskirts of Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

10.   Kurumbapatti Zoological Park, Salem, Tamil Nadu.

11.   Kanpur Zoological Park, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh.

12.   Prince of Wales Zoological Gardens, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.

13.   Zoological Garden, Alipore, Lolkata.

14.   Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjelling, West Bengal.

15.   Zoological Park, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh.

16.   Gandhi Zoological Park, Gwaliar, Madhya Pradesh.

17.   Manipur Zoological Garden, Iroisemba. Imphal. Manipur.